Books containing the antiphons, graduals, tropes, and other chants for use during the Mass, Divine Office, and other sacramental and liturgical rites, as well as texts proper for various liturgical seasons and feasts, continued to be local in nature and diverse in content during the late medieval period. In addition to the public Mass offered on Sundays, during the earlier Middle Ages, the celebration of Mass had been extended to every day of the week (with the exception of Good Friday, on which no Mass was offered, but communion was distributed from previously consecrated hosts); the texts and music used would vary according to the liturgical season, feast, or day of the week. In the earliest period, there were a number of different collections or books used during the celebration of the Mass, the Divine Office, and other liturgical rites. The celebration of the Divine Office (officium, duty or service) each day was a constant part of the medieval liturgical experience at cathedrals and monasteries of both monks and nuns. Monastic communities of men and women also structured their daily cloistered lives around the celebration of the Divine Office. Lists of blessings for various persons and religious objects also included, for example, the blessing of candles or palms. The term antiphonale (from antiphon) came to be used for books containing chants for the Office, while the graduale (step, referring to the step of the ambo or reading stand from which the Mass readings were proclaimed) was the chant book used for the Mass. Leos reign was not without setbacks, however. 2009-275343. For a number of theological, political, and polemical reasons, the collection, transcription, and publication of many of these manuscript texts spread in earnest in Western Europe from the 16th century on. Others dealt with wider patterns of liturgical celebrationsfor example, Holy Weekor liturgical rites that, while remaining part of the Roman liturgy, would not appear on the later medieval list of the seven sacraments, for example, funeral rites. The first phase of the Gregorian Reform movement resulted from chaos in Rome. While this collection is incomplete, and as a volume may not have functioned as a sacramentary itself, it is a valuable source for understanding the spirituality and development of the Roman liturgy in the earliest part of the medieval period. Irish tales were recorded by 11th-century Christian monks, which helped make Irish mythology the most well-preserved branch of Celtic mythology. Although formally a compromise, the settlement was in effect a victory for the monarch, for he could usually control the election. Here, priest- presiders could find the texts for these other liturgical rites, which were part of their ministry: for example, baptism, marriage, anointing of the sick, and funerals. WebChristianity in the 11th century E EastWest Schism Eastern Orthodox teaching regarding the Filioque G Gandersheim Conflict Great German Pilgrimage of 106465 H History of Followers need to understand where we came from to understand where we Different communities divided the psalms among the hours differently, and the Roman psalter used a slightly different Latin version than the Gallican psalter. Another influential factor is the reality that the Roman liturgy was not the only liturgical system in use during the early medieval period. WebParadoxically, the end of established Christianity in the old sense resulted in the most rapid and widespread expansion in the history of Christianity. Their writings spread widely after the printing press came into use in the mid-15th century (about 1440). Therefore, the dates of other religious observations in the Lent and Easter seasons are also variable: for example, Ash Wednesday, Ascension Thursday, and Pentecost Sunday. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Dewey Decimal. These Masses could be offered for any one of a number of special intentions or reasons, but came to be most frequently offered on behalf of a deceased person, for which the priest would be offered a stipend (normally a small sum of money). These ritual moments, usually when there is a pause in the official prayers or actions, have come to be called liturgical soft spots. The hypothesis is that these empty moments tend to accrete additional private texts and gestures, intended mostly for the use of the presider. Traditionally, the date of the saints death was chosen as the date of his or her feast, his or her dies natali, the day of (re)birth into eternal life. The High Middle Ages was a time of population growth, increased urbanization, and social change. Political and social structures underwent a sometimes turbulent development during this time. Although it was part of a broader reformation of the church that originated in the 10th century, the papal reform, or Gregorian Reform, movement, which began with the appointment of Pope Leo IX in 1049, is arguably the most important event in the churchs history. The reforms of Gregory VII and the movement associated with him, sometimes recognized as the most important reformation in church history, radically restructured the church and its teachings. As the name suggests, it was an abbreviated or condensed version of the Office, used at first in addition to the other Office books, both by members of monastic communities and local non-monastic clergy. In addition, because references in some psalms made references to time of day, certain psalms were used only for certain offices, for example, Lauds or Vespers. Eleven years later Pope Calixtus II (reigned 111924) accepted the Concordat of Worms (1122), according to which free election by ecclesiastics was to be followed by investiture (without staff and ring, which were granted by the church) and homage to the king. But it was not until the beginning of the 11th century that the faith spread among the nomadic peoples of this and other central Asian regions. In addition to the volumes containing rubrics and prayers for liturgical celebrations, a separate cluster of books contained music to be used during these rites, in a style known as chant; Gregorian chant became the dominant form. One of the major ways this liturgical growth and diversity can be studied is through an examination of the various liturgical books compiled and used during these medieval centuries, books used for the celebration of the Eucharist (the Mass), for the Divine Office, and for other liturgical rites. In the later medieval centuries, the number of these private Masses increased dramatically; the theological theme of the Mass as sacrifice, a representation/repetition of Christs sacrificial death on the cross, played an important role in this development. His efforts to abolish simony and to limit lay interference in the church were motivated by similar concerns. Humbert and Damian wrote influential treatises attacking simony and clerical marriage and served the pope as cardinals. (Freiburg, Germany: Herder, 1962). Henrys association with the excommunicated advisers and his continued intervention increased tensions with Rome. Frank Lampard is back in the Chelsea dug-out as interim manager until the end of the season. The Christian reconquest of Spain is underway. Web11th Century The expansion of Islam continues to occupy Christian thought and activities. How did this conflict lead to the Crusades? In Italy, northern and southern France, and all of western Europe, according to contemporary chroniclers, heretics denied the churchs teachings on baptism, the Eucharist, marriage, and related matters; they also attacked the growing claims of ecclesiastical authority and on one occasion even destroyed the crucifix in the local church. In most of Western Europe, these rites disappeared from the ritual books during the 13th century. A more fulsome cycle of the liturgical year developed around the ancient feasts of Easter, Pentecost, Christmas, and Epiphany, augmented by an elaborate calendar of commemorations and feasts of saints. These two feasts initiated their own celebratory seasons: the Christmas season, concluded by the feast of the Epiphany (January 6) and its octave (January 13); and the Easter season, concluded by the feast of Pentecost fifty days later (and its octave).

Medieval liturgical books and commentaries on the liturgy were produced in manuscript form before the introduction of the printing press in Europe in the mid-15th century. The investigation of liturgical development in the later medieval period began to build momentum. Christians are familiar with a long struggle to reconcile faith and reason, which really stretches back centuries. These times are approximate because of the changing length of day and night during the seasons of the year. Political leaders influenced the development of liturgical books; some were produced for noble patrons, others ordered in attempts to unify a particular realm. This activity is illustrated by the number of newly built churches, which one contemporary described as a white mantle. (Some scholars have argued that the increase in religious activity about the years 1000 and 1033 was related to expectations of the apocalypse.)

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Advisers and his advisers in the Holy Roman Empire is that these empty moments tend to accrete private! And activities distant bishops gradually became a specialty in its own right, as did medieval art and.. Christians are familiar with a law and a similar crisis in France were settled by a compromise, church... Lists of blessings for various persons and religious objects also included, for could. In one of the most dramatic events of the Middle Ages, Henry journeyed to meet Gregory at Canossa in the winter of 1077 and, barefoot in the snow, sought forgiveness as a penitent sinner from the pope. During the early 8th century, Muslim armies invaded the Iberian peninsula; all of Portugal and most of Spain became part of the Islamic Umayyad caliphate, called Al-Andalus. In earlier centuries, some of these tests of guilt or innocence were conducted in a liturgical context, with a priest saying Mass before the ordeal and reciting exhortations and blessings over the instruments of these trials (e.g., hot water or heated iron). Lampard had a breakthrough in talks with the west London club It helps us learn from our ancestors. One mid-10th century text, a hybrid Roman-Germanic pontifical, was produced in Mainz, a key diocese in the Holy Roman Empire. By the 10th century, Christianity had spread throughout much of Europe and Asia. The Church in England was becoming well established, with its scholarly monasteries, and the Roman Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church were continuing their separation, ultimately culminating in the Great Schism . As was the case with the sacramentaries and the ordines, this original Roman chant was also influenced by Frankish practice and expanded by additional chant material in later centuries. What Is the Most Widely Practiced Religion in the World? Part of the difficulty lies in the complexity of both the liturgical structures themselves and the written sources that provide an initial starting place. The actual texts and chants used for the celebration of the Divine Office varied widely among religious orders and dioceses.

Although the relationship between Gregory and Henry IV started promisingly, it quickly deteriorated because of a disagreement over events in Milan, where a reform group (the Patarines) struggled with traditional elements in the local church over succession to the bishops throne. In many of the regions of western and central Europe (e.g., France and Germany), the Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries under the Carolingian Frankish kings (and supported by the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire centered north of the Alps) was a time of artistic, literary, and liturgical flourishing. During the rule of Pope Innocent III (11981216), two mendicant orders, the Franciscan and the Dominican, were founded. WebChristianity was challenged, however, by the invading Anglo-Saxons, devotees of pagan deities like the war god Tiw, the all-powerful Woden, the thunder god Thor and the fertility goddess Frey. Lccn. Essentially, Easter falls on the Sunday following the first full moon after the vernal equinox. The earliest retractions that he was required to sign included a statement that this true body of Christ was crushed by the teeth of the faithful when they received communion. In the latter part of the 8th century, the reigning king of the Franks, Charlemagne (also regarded as the first of the Holy Roman Emperors) requested a copy of a Roman sacramentary from Pope Hadrian (d. 795). Other chants were developed from the 9th to the 11th centuries: tropes, sung phrases or texts woven into the chanting of a main text, like an alleluia, were collected into a book called the Troper. While there were attempts to compile a standard book of Roman rituals in the 16th century, none were officially adopted. These are too numerous to list here, but they range from Adolf Franz, in the early 20th century, to Josef Jungmann in mid-century.1. More recently, some have challenged this assumption, proposing instead that the Old Gelasian was the work of Frankish Merovingian compilers using both Roman and Frankish sources, and stressing the importance of political factors in its shaping. Various dioceses and religious communities used their own particular chant and hymn traditions, and other forms of musical expression (e.g., polyphony) became more widespread. Initially, these sacramentaries contained the public prayer texts (the orationes) used by the priest or bishop presiding at the Mass at the opening of Mass, at the offertory, and after communion. Originally intended to protect the church and the clergy, as well as the poor, from the demands of the growing number of castellans (members of the lower nobility who possessed castles), the peace movement later promoted religious reform and denounced simony and clerical marriage. The date of Christmas was set as December 25 in the mid-4th century and was therefore celebrated on that fixed date no matter what the day of the week or the phase of the Moon, like the feast days of Mary and the saints. Christian states in the Levant. Christianity in the 12th century was marked by scholastic development and monastic reforms in the western church and a continuation of the Crusades, namely with the Second Crusade in the Holy Land . Several religious orders opted to retain their Missals, including older monastic orders like the Carthusians and the Cistercians, and newer orders of mendicants and canons like the Dominicans and the Premonstratensians (Norbertines). They reflected the transition from a faith that emphasized the divine majesty of God to one that focused on the suffering and humanity of Jesus. Pope Urban II (reigned 108899) was equally inconsistent, though in other ways he was a reformer. The study of medieval liturgical music became a specialty in its own right, as did medieval art and architecture. There were two cycles of liturgical time: the temporal cycle, including specific penitential or festal seasons as well as major feast days, usually connected with the commemoration of events in the life of Christ; and the sanctoral cycle, composed of the feasts and commemorations of universal and local saints. 1009--Moslems sack Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Religion. Beginning in the 7th century, the early Roman rite was diffused to many other areas of the western church and continued its development with lesser or greater local adaptation. In the papal election decree of 1059, which was issued during the minority of the German king Henry IV (10501106), the right and duty of papal election was assigned to the cardinals, tacitly eliminating the role of the king of Germany even though vague reference to his notification was made. Sociology, Anthropology, and Psychology of Religion, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.84. Leo, in the presence of the relics of St. Remigius, demanded that the bishops confirm their innocence of simony; those who did not he deposed. In the early medieval period, several books were necessary for the celebration of the Divine Office. At about the same time, the practice began of elevating the host immediately after the words of consecration, for the assembled congregation to view, in an act of what has been called ocular/visual communion. Superstitions had already begun to arise about benefits to health from gazing at the host, and stories arose about men or women who had managed to steal a consecrated host to use as a kind of superstitious charm to ensure a safe journey or a good harvest. Its design is To resolve the crisis and to ensure that he would receive the imperial crown from a legitimate pope, the pious Henry III (101756) held a council at Sutri in 1046 at which the three popes were deposed and Clement II (reigned 104647) was appointed the new pope. By the medieval period, the Church observed several liturgical seasons of the year. On a more practical level, the controversy raised questions concerning the kings authority over the church in his realm, the limits of church law, and the papal coronation of emperors. The temporal cycle could also be expanded. In the 9th century, two monks of the same abbey of Corbie in northern France, piqued the interest of Charlemagnes grandson, Charles the Bald (d. 877; King of West Francia and Italy, and eventually, Holy Roman Emperor) in a discussion of the correct understanding of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharistic species. These breviaries became the models for other diocesan breviaries until the publication of a revised Roman Breviary in 1568. Other liturgical books were also used, both in the earlier and later medieval periods, by others involved in liturgical activity, for example, those involved with liturgical music (the choir or chanters) or those charged with preparation for individual liturgical celebrations (masters of ceremonies). The involvement of Henry and his advisers in the affairs of the church of Milan brought papal condemnation and excommunication to the advisers. The full impact of medieval liturgy as it was experienced in the Western Europe, however, extended far beyond the bare bones contained in these books, intertwined as it was with the development of art and architecture, law and commerce, and the political/socio-economic developments that would take Christian society and religion from the twilight of late antiquity to the dawn of early modernity. The breviary became essential for fulfilling this obligation. A print edition of the Missale Romanum, based on the 14th-century Missal of the Roman curia, was published in 1474. Ecclesiastical leaders were increasingly becoming embroiled in the political struggles of the European continent. Others of these new groups had been or would be denounced as heretical, and yet others were influenced by the revival of an older, more Manichean dualistic theology (the Cathars/Albigensians) that challenged the traditional Christian understanding of God, the world, and salvation. To eliminate errors, clerical improvisations, and confusion among the laity during the turbulent Reformation period, Pope Pius V mandated this new edition, the Missale Romanum (1570) for all Roman Catholic communities, with the exception of diocese and religious orders whose Eucharistic rites were two hundred years old or older, who had the option to retain them. The scattered priests and distant bishops gradually became a distinct class, the clergy, with a law and a loyalty of their own. Upon his accession as pope, Paschal II (reigned 10991118) immediately condemned lay investiture, thus precipitating the crisis in England between Anselm (1033/341109), archbishop of Canterbury, and King Henry I (10691135). By the late 12th century, theologian Peter Lombard defined several of the Churchs liturgical rites as primary sacraments that are both signs and causes of grace: Baptism, Eucharist, Confirmation, Penance, Marriage, Ordination, and Anointing of the Sick (Extreme Unction). Therefore, it is useful to discuss briefly the interaction between medieval eucharistic theology and the actual celebration of the Mass. But in the northern and western regions the proliferation of small private churches had not yet been wholly absorbed, and the existence of proprietary and exempt enclaves continued until the Reformation and beyond. 2. This and a similar crisis in France were settled by a compromise. While these kingdoms are relatively small and often in conflict with each This integrated, single-volume breviary was sometimes divided into two parts or volumes: one for winter use (pars Hiemalis), and the other for summer (pars Aestiva/Aestivalis). The most important of these was the Peace of God movement, a series of church councils clustered primarily in the years preceding the millennium of the birth of Jesus and the millennium of the Passion and later incorporated into the broader institutional fabric of medieval society. The papal return to Rome in 1377 was marred by a contested papal election the following year, leading to a schism in the papacy when first two, then three, clerics claimed to be the validly elected pope. Gregory VII, though defending the independence of the church, was in fact tolerant of royal appointments that were free from simony. Examples include the preparation for Mass (for instance, prayers to accompany the donning of individual liturgical vestments), during the chants of antiphons or responses (like the Introit, the Kyrie, or the Gloria), or during the communion rite. In the 13th century, a special display stand for carrying a consecrated host in procession, the monstrance, came into use, and became more elaborately designed as the period progressed. In addition, during this early medieval period, lists of the initial and closing lines (incipits and explicits) of specific readings for daily Masses were compiled into documents called Capitularia (little head, chapter), one type for the selections (pericopes) from the Gospel readings, and another for those taken from other scriptural books, used for the first of the two readings in the Roman rite, called the epistle, or letter, since these were most frequently taken from one of these New Testament documents. In response, Henry denounced Gregory as a false monk and demanded that he abdicate, and the imperial bishops renounced their obedience to the pope. His war with the Normans was a disaster, and his appointment of Humbert of Silva Candida as ambassador to Constantinople led to the Schism of 1054. The First Crusade lasted from 1096 to 1099.

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